Philosophy of Science

Abstract Mohammad ibn Musa Khawrazmi, one of the most famous mathematicians of Iran in the 9th century, invented a new science which is called today ‘algebra’. Thanks this science he could solve all the quadratic equations of his time. In fact, he developed a theory for systematically solving quadratic equations. In this theory, he distinguished firstly the five types of algebraic equations. Secondly, he gave the algorithms to solve these equations. Thirdly, he gave the geometrical proofs for these solutions. Indeed, Khawrazmi went beyond merely providing the sort of algebraic recipes found in Babylonian texts,by insisting in further adding geometrical proofs for algebraic facts. Khawrazmi's contribution and influence are tremendous .In 1140 Robert of Chester translated Khawrazmi's book into Latin as ‘Liber algebrae et almucabala’. When Khawrazmi's work became known in Europe through Latin translation his influence made indelible mark on the development of mathematics in the West especially in Italy. For example, Cardano, an italian mathematician, opened his ‘Ars magna’ with a brief historical passage in which he first traced his intellectual lineage from Khawrazmi through Fibonacci to Pacioli and then outlined the sixteenth century developments on the solution of the cubic equation.

Abstract Thinking about the relation between mathematical thinking and modern science is necessary for understanding the modern world. Martin Heidegger analyzes this subject from a unique perspective. In this essay, the concept of "mathematical" and its relation to mathematics and modern science is explained. The dangers of ascendancy of mathematical thinking are discussed; and finally, the differences between Heidegger’s views on mathematics and the prevalent philosophy of mathematics are considered.

Abstract Realism and Anti-Realism debate is one of the philosophical problems that remain prominent during the history of human's thought. The discussion of this issue reaches to new and varied forms under the light of contemporary branches of philosophy especially second order philosophies. In philosophy of science, this debate is discussed in a narrow especial sense that entails some various discussions. In this article, Kosso's innovative thesis of "Realistic Realism" is described and criticized.

Abstract Nowadays, Thousands of English and Persian scientific articles are produced Annual and total of Journals and Depth research, are growing Tenfold than the past. So, is the Science growing such the total of articles and ISI in our country? In this article, being discussed with the Challenge to Common Criteria Journals of Research and Review gave no idea of the scientific Ideational method about the actual criteria scientific article. And finally, introduction and providing two criteria of the Benefit method and repeatability and Verification for the other researches along with the synergy of science and having new ideas as Fundamental standards of science as being an article. Also providing Procedures to produce scientific papers.

Abstract Usually The Structure of Scientific Revolution is known as a turning point in the philosophy of science. However, rather than Kuhn, there have been other philosophers who have tried to shed light on infirmity points of empirical philosophies, some of them have even tried to suggest alternative solutions. Michael Polanyi is one of these latter philosophers who, just before the publication of The Structure, has brought ideas so similar to those of Kuhn's, in his philosophical works especially in his Personal Knowledge. These similarities are so much that Kuhn has even been accused to plagiarism on Polanyi's opinions. In this paper, we are going to take this case into consideration by studying certain historical evidences which imply such an influence; comparing the original texts of their books; and finally, bringing what others have said in this regard. On the other hand, such a consideration can provide us an opportunity to know Polanyi better, especially his metaphysics which is radically different from Kuhn’s.

Abstract The acceleration of the universe has been confirmed through various cosmological observations since 1998. Nevertheless, there are many models proposed to explain this acceleration and there is no broad agreement on the fact. A concordance model titled “ΛCMD” suggests that the energy of the vacuum space, with a negative pressure, is the origin of the universe acceleration. However the nature of this energy is unknown, and so it is called “Dark Energy”, and we have only a phenomenological equation of state (EOS) for it. The cosmologist Lawrence M. Krauss’ thesis, based on a specific value of EOS parameter, predicts a static universe of our local supercluster surrounded by a void, in the future. According to Krauss, the late time intelligentswill not have any access to the pillars of the modern cosmology, and so the “End of Cosmology” will be expected. This paper surveys Krauss’ thesis and examinesits assumptions and consequences. An unavoidable uncertainty in the prediction of the fate of accelerating universe is vindicated.

Abstract In this essay, positivism is briefly introduced. Furthermore, Shariati’s opinion about positivists’ thought is expressed. In the first part, similarities between Shariati and positivism are probed. These similarities include scientific method, objectivity of natural science, accuracy and credibility of natural science and relying on it, utilization of natural science methods in human science and distinguishing between identification and judgement. In the second part, differences between Shariati and positivism are probed.These differences include role of culture in science, critisizing scientific abstinence and the idea of “science for science”, efffect of individual and society on science (subjectivism), the difference between natural science and human science in accuracy and credibility, critisizing scientism, necessity of philosophy and metaphysics (refutation of empricism) and science need to identify human correctly. At the end, we conclude that Shariati is not compeletly a positivist and also is not compeletly against positivists.