Critical Realist Methodology and the Question of Possibility: The Nature of Critical Realist Methodology and Its Application to Iranian Society

Bayani, Farhad

doi:10.30465/ps.2026.54227.1821

Critical Realist Methodology and the Question of Possibility: The Nature of Critical Realist Methodology and Its Application to Iranian Society

Document Type : Research Paper

Author

Farhad Bayani

Assistant Professor of Sociology, Department of Science and Technology, Institute for Social and Cultural Studies, Teharan, Iran

https://doi.org/10.30465/ps.2026.54227.1821

Abstract

This study aims to present an adapted methodology based on critical realism for the investigation of social phenomena in Iran. According to the critical realist approach, social reality is multi-layered, encompassing the empirical level, underlying structures, and causal mechanisms, and understanding it requires moving beyond surface-level observations to deeper layers. By reviewing and comparing existing realist methodological models, this article highlights the necessity of localizing and redesigning research methods for the Iranian context. The proposed model comprises eight stages: description, analytical decomposition, retroductive prediction, retroduction, comparison and refinement, objectification and contextualization, triangulation, and correction. Each stage is designed to enable researchers to identify the constituent elements and generative mechanisms of social reality, produce multi-layered and valid explanations, and align their analysis with Iran’s historical, cultural, and institutional context. Emphasizing reflexivity, continuous critique, and flexibility, this methodology facilitates the discovery of unseen causal mechanisms and the provision of realistic, context-sensitive explanations of complex social phenomena in Iran. The findings provide both practical and theoretical guidance for social science researchers in Iran, enabling them to employ critical realism to generate deep, valid, and locally grounded analyses.
Keywords: Critical realism, adapted methodology, causal mechanisms, contextualization, social research in Iran.

Introduction
One of the enduring challenges in social sciences is explaining complex social realities beyond surface-level observations. Dominant approaches often either reduce social phenomena to observable regularities or limit analysis to subjective interpretations. Critical realism offers an alternative by emphasizing a stratified ontology consisting of empirical, actual, and real domains, where underlying mechanisms generate observable events.
Despite its theoretical richness, critical realism suffers from methodological ambiguity. Existing methodological models remain either overly abstract or insufficiently operationalized. This limitation becomes more pronounced in non-Western contexts such as Iran, where socio-cultural and institutional specificities require methodological adaptation rather than direct importation. Therefore, this study seeks to critically examine existing models and propose a context-sensitive methodological framework.

Materials & Methods
This research adopts a qualitative, analytical-comparative design. Seven influential critical realist methodological models were selected as units of analysis. Data consisted of key theoretical texts and scholarly works in which these models are articulated.
The analysis was guided by four criteria:
1. Internal methodological structure
2. Engagement with stratified ontology
3. Approach to identifying causal mechanisms
4. Practical applicability in empirical research
Through systematic comparison, strengths and limitations of each model were identified. The study then synthesizes these findings to construct an alternative methodological framework.

Discussion & Results
The comparative analysis reveals three major patterns:
First, models such as Bhaskar’s remain highly abstract, offering strong philosophical foundations but limited empirical guidance. Second, approaches like those of Danermark and Bygstad provide more structured and applicable frameworks, enabling interaction between theory and data. Third, simplified models (e.g., Tapa or Ho) enhance usability but reduce analytical depth.
Across all models, the identification of causal mechanisms through retroduction remains central. However, differences emerge in how this process is operationalized. Models with iterative and flexible structures demonstrate greater capacity to address complex social realities.
Based on these findings, the study proposes an eight-stage methodology:
1. Description
2. Analytical decomposition
3. Theoretical redescription
4. Retroduction
5. Retrodiction
6. Comparative evaluation
7. Contextualization
8. Triangulation and iterative correction
This framework integrates theoretical rigor with empirical applicability while emphasizing contextual sensitivity.

Conclusion
Critical realism provides a powerful lens for understanding social reality, but its methodological underdevelopment limits its practical use. This study demonstrates that existing models, while valuable, require adaptation for context-specific research.
The proposed methodology offers a systematic yet flexible framework for analyzing social phenomena in Iran. By combining layered analysis, causal explanation, and contextual awareness, it enhances both explanatory depth and empirical applicability. This approach can contribute to revitalizing social research by enabling more realistic, non-reductionist, and contextually grounded analyses.

Keywords

Critical realism

adapted methodology

causal mechanisms

contextualization

social research in Iran

Subjects

Philosophy of social sciences

Ackroyd, S., & Karlsson, J. C. (2014). Critical realism, research techniques, and research designs. In P. K. Edwards, J. O’Mahoney, & S. Vincent (Eds.), Studying organizations using critical realism: A practical guide (pp. 21–45). Oxford University Press.

Archer, M. S. (1995). Realist social theory: The morphogenetic approach. Cambridge University Press.

Archer, M., Bhaskar, R., Collier, A., Lawson, T., & Norrie, A. (Eds.). (1998). Critical realism: Essential readings. Routledge.

Bhaskar, R. (1978). A realist theory of science. Harvester Press.

Bhaskar, R. (1989b). Reclaiming reality: A critical introduction to contemporary philosophy. Verso.

Bhaskar, R. (1993). Dialectic: The Pulse of Freedom. London: Verso

Bhaskar, R. (2010). Interdisciplinarity and climate change: Transforming knowledge and practice for our global future. Routledge.

Bhaskar, R. (2014). Foreword. In P. K. Edwards, J. O’Mahoney, & S. Vincent (Eds.), Studying organizations using critical realism: A practical guide (pp. v–xv). Oxford University Press.

Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (2002). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32–42. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X018001032

Burrell, G., & Morgan, G. (1979). Sociological paradigms and organisational analysis. Heinemann.

Bygstad, B., & Munkvold, B. E. (2011). In search of mechanisms: Conducting a critical realist data analysis. Information and Organization, 21(4), 281 294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infoandorg.2011.07.001

Ciborra, C., and Failla, A. 2000. "Infrastructure as a Process: The Case of CRM at IBM", From Control to Drift. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Collier, A. (1994). Critical realism: An introduction to Roy Bhaskar's philosophy. Verso.

Danermark, B., Ekström, M., Jakobsen, L., & Karlsson, J. C. (2002). Explaining society: Critical realism in the social sciences. Routledge.

DeLanda, M. 2006. A New Philosophy of Society, London: Continuum.

Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (2011). The SAGE handbook of qualitative research (4th ed.). Sage Publications.

Easton, G. (2010). Critical realism in case study research. Industrial Marketing Management, 39(1), 118–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2008.06.004

Fletcher, A. J. (2017). Applying critical realism in qualitative research: Methodology meets method. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 20(2), 181–194. https://doi.org/10.1080/13645579.2016.1144401

Grindley, P. (1995). Standards, strategy, and policy: Cases and stories. Oxford University Press.

Hastings, S. (2021). Critical realism and social research: The hidden structure of social phenomena. Journal of Critical Realism, 20(4), 460 475. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767430.2020.1846014

Hu, J. (2018). Methodological implications of critical realism for entrepreneurship research. Journal of Critical Realism, 17(2), 118–139. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767430.2017.1378142

Lawson, T. (2003). Reorienting economics. Routledge.

Lyytinen, K. and Newman 2008. "Explaining information systems change: a punctuated socio-technical change model." European Journal of Information Systems 17, pp.589-613.

Mingers, J. (2004). Realizing information systems: Critical realism as an underpinning philosophy for information systems. Information and Organization, 14(2), 87–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infoandorg.2003.06.001

Morse, J. M., Barrett, M., Mayan, M., Olson, K., & Spiers, J. (2008). Verification strategies for establishing reliability and validity in qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 1(2), 13–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690800100202

Morton, P. 2006. “Using Critical Realism to Explain Strategic Information Systems Planning,” Journal of Information Technology Theory & Application (18:1), pp. 1-20.

Oliver, C. (2012). Critical realism: A practical guide for researchers. Social Research Update, 60, 1–4. https://sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk/SRU60.html

Pawson, R., and Tilley, N. 1997. Realistic Evaluation, London: Sage.

Pettigrew, A. M. 1985. "Contextualist Research and the Study of Organizational Change Processes", in E. Mumford, R. Hirschheim, G. Fitgerald, and A. T. Wood-Harper, eds., Research Methods in Information Systems. Amsterdam: North-Holland, pp. 53-78.

Pettigrew, A. M. 1985. "Contextualist Research and the Study of Organizational Change Processes", in E. Mumford, R. Hirschheim, G. Fitgerald, and A. T. Wood-Harper, eds., Research Methods in Information Systems. Amsterdam: North-Holland, pp. 53-78.

Porpora, D. V. (2016). Reconstructing sociology: The critical realist approach. Cambridge University Press.

Sayer, A. (1992). Method in social science: A realist approach (2nd ed.). Routledge.

Sayer, A. (2000). Realism and social science. Sage Publications.

Smith, M. L. (2006). Overcoming theory-practice inconsistencies: Critical realism and information systems research. Information and Organization, 16(3), 191–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infoandorg.2006.07.002

Thapa, D., & Omland, H. O. (2018). Four steps to identify mechanisms of ICT4D: A critical realism‐based methodology. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 84(6), e12054. https://doi.org/10.1002/isd2.12054

Volkoff, O., Strong, D. M., and Elmes, M. B. 2007. "Technological Embeddedness and Organizational Change." Organization Science, (18:5), pp.832-848.

Wynn, D., Jr., & Williams, C. K. (2012). Principles for conducting critical realist case study research in information systems. MIS Quarterly, 36(3), 787–810. https://doi.org/10.2307/41703494

Young, M. (1997). Critical realism and social science: A research agenda. Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 27(1), 51–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/004839319702700103

Zachariadis, M., Scott, S. V., & Barrett, M. I. (2013). Methodological implications of critical realism for mixed-methods research. MIS Quarterly, 37(3), 855–879. https://doi.org/10.25300/MISQ/2013/37.3.09