Philosophy of Science

Abstract A social subject, such as the university, is involved in a wide range of issues, and social research on the university is conducted to address them. In the studies, multiple methods are used, each of which can examine the university only from a specific perspective and with an emphasis on specific concepts. Government sponsors and industrial investors, who are only interested in some of the university's functions, also support only the research they are interested in, thereby leading to the more “valuable”, more prominent, and more strengthened concepts that are important to those investors and sponsors outside the university. The result of such a process is the destruction of the university's internal norms and, as a consequence, scientific and financial misconduct. For decades, critical theory scholars have been concerned with this issue: the importance of considering the totality of a social issue rather than addressing only a specific aspect. The present article, by describing the methodology of critical theory, and by presenting a discussion of Iranian university-related researches, claims that Iranian traditional (positivistic) researches, by highlighting some interests of specific groups, and eliminating public considerations, such as ideas related to the ethics of science, may lead to the weakening of the functioning, or even the collapse, of the institution of science and the university.

Abstract The question of the reality of social kinds—such as money, nationality, and gender—is a central issue in social ontology. This paper defends a framework we call gradational realism, according to which the reality of social kinds is neither absolute nor binary but varies according to the degree to which four operational criteria are satisfied. These criteria are: (1) explanatory–predictive role, meaning that removing the social kind would reduce our ability to explain or predict social phenomena; (2) intersubjective and institutional stability, meaning that agents and institutions consistently reproduce the kind; (3) structural adequacy, whereby institutional rules and material or documentary anchors support its stabilization; and (4) empirical tractability, meaning that the kind can be systematically assessed and investigated. Three case studies—money, group type II, and the state—show that social kinds possess different degrees of reality: money and the state exhibit strong reality, whereas group type II has a moderate and conditional reality. The proposed framework enables a shift from absolutist judgments to gradational and structure-sensitive evaluations of social kinds.

Abstract This article explores the role of the concept of "moral sensibility" in the relationship between mind and reality within the framework of the idea of liberation as articulated by Theodor Adorno. This exploration is situated in relation to the question of how a philosophical theory of ethics can become a material force in society, meaning a force that not only guides agents' actions at the epistemic level but also motivates them materially at the level of will. The article compares Kant’s concept of Categorical Imperative, which emphasizes the universality and unconditionality of moral obligations, with alternative philosophical perspectives that assert the conditioned nature of ethics and emphasize its rootedness in human desires and emotions. Through this comparison, it underscores the importance of formulating the question of moral requirements, including moral sensibility, in terms of the "problem of normativity" and positions liberation as a fundamental element of ethical life in modern society. Utilizing Fabian Freyenhagen’s thesis of "negative Aristotelianism," the article emphasizes the necessity of recognizing the "bad" as the starting point for ethical critique while simultaneously challenging the limitations of overly simplistic frameworks that focus solely on basic human needs through a critique of Freyenhagen’s reading of Adorno. By incorporating insights regarding the unconscious and the socio-historical context, it demonstrates how moral sensibility is shaped not only by rational reflection but also by deeper psychological and social forces. Ultimately, the argument advocates for a more nuanced understanding of moral agency that emphasizes the interplay between individual experiences and social structures, thereby offering an account of moral sensibility that acknowledges both the subjective conditions of possibility for ethics and the real conditions of possibility for ethics.

Abstract This study aims to present an adapted methodology based on critical realism for the investigation of social phenomena in Iran. According to the critical realist approach, social reality is multi-layered, encompassing the empirical level, underlying structures, and causal mechanisms, and understanding it requires moving beyond surface-level observations to deeper layers. By reviewing and comparing existing realist methodological models, this article highlights the necessity of localizing and redesigning research methods for the Iranian context. The proposed model comprises eight stages: description, analytical decomposition, retroductive prediction, retroduction, comparison and refinement, objectification and contextualization, triangulation, and correction. Each stage is designed to enable researchers to identify the constituent elements and generative mechanisms of social reality, produce multi-layered and valid explanations, and align their analysis with Iran’s historical, cultural, and institutional context. Emphasizing reflexivity, continuous critique, and flexibility, this methodology facilitates the discovery of unseen causal mechanisms and the provision of realistic, context-sensitive explanations of complex social phenomena in Iran. The findings provide both practical and theoretical guidance for social science researchers in Iran, enabling them to employ critical realism to generate deep, valid, and locally grounded analyses.